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1 Coral Reefs in the Arabian Seas

The Red Sea stretches 1900 km and contains over 300 coral species and 1400 fish species (Kotb et al. 2008). However, research on the Red Sea reefs is considerably less than that of Caribbean coral reefs and the Australian Great Barrier Reef. Studies on Red Sea reefs are only about 1/6 of the research done on the Great Barrier Reef and 1/8 of Caribbean reefs. Much of this research is confined to the Gulf of Aqaba, leaving a significant data gap for most Red Sea countries (Berumen et al. 2013). A similar research dearth exists for the Arabian Gulf.

Both the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf have limited freshwater influx and high coastal water clarity (Porter and Tougas 2001). The Red Sea supports expansive fringing coral reefs along its entire coastline. On the other hand, the Arabian Gulf, which has an average depth of just 50 m, contains coral structures more akin to encrusting carpets due to its mobile, sedimentary substrate (Reigl and Purkiss 2012). The Gulf has seen a surge in research due to its unique coral types, extreme conditions, and human-induced impacts (Burt et al. 2014).

Previously, the Arabian Gulf was dominated by Acroporid corals, but mass bleaching events, especially in 1996, 1998, and subsequent years, have had a profound impact on them (Reigl 2002). Additionally, coastal development since the 1960s further accelerated the degradation of the region’s reefs (Burt et al. 2014). This underscores the importance of both natural and human-made influences on the coral reefs of the Arabian Seas and the need for their judicious, science-based management.

2 The Marine Environment of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf

The marine environment of the Arabian Seas is extreme in its temperature and salinity range, leading to unique adaptations of corals to the harsh environment.

2.1 Temperature

The Arabian (Arabian) Gulf and Arabian Sea are home to 34 and 103 coral species respectively, spanning 16 families (Al Cibahy 2012). Remarkably, these corals endure vast seasonal sea temperature fluctuations ranging from 14–36°C, and notably, one of the world’s highest mean daily summer temperatures of 34–35°C (Schoepf et al. 2015). This is in stark contrast to the Caribbean’s thermal threshold, which ranges between ~28°C and 30°C (Coles and Brown 2003). Globally, major bleaching events were recorded in 1998, 2010, and 2015 (Hughes et al. 2018), with the Western Atlantic experiencing double the bleaching events than Australasia and the Indian Ocean. Understanding the stress levels corals endure, both lethal and sub-lethal, is crucial for reef management amidst climate change. Given their significant thermal variations, the Gulf’s reefs provide valuable insights into climate change’s effects on coral reefs, their physiological adaptations, and distinct behaviour compared to other global corals (Schoepf et al. 2015).

2.2 Coral Bleaching

Coral bleaching occurs when thermal shock causes the coral to expel its symbiotic zooxanthellae. The zooxanthellae contain pigments that allow them to photosynthesise, affording the corals a secondary food source to supplement their filtering of tiny zooplankton. Once the zooxanthellae have been expelled, the coral loses its colour and takes on a white “bleached” appearance. The coral can survive bleaching for a period, as it is still able to filter feed. However, if the thermal stress and bleaching continue for more than 8 weeks, the coral will die. Recovery from bleaching typically takes 9-12 years, assuming no other stressors (tropical cyclones, another bleaching event, pollution) are present.

The Arabian Gulf has witnessed several mass coral bleaching events linked to both extreme high and cooling temperatures (Monroe et al. 2018). In light of such extreme temperatures, understanding the corals susceptibility to bleaching is pivotal. Interestingly, along the Saudi coast of the central Red Sea, the 2015 bleaching was less intense than the 2010 event, with certain rarer coral species being more affected (Monroe et al. 2018). These findings underscore the significance of acclimatization and adaptation in coral’s thermal tolerance.

2.3 Thermal Tolerance

Arabian Gulf and Red Sea reefs, known for their broad temperature regimes, offer critical insights into thermal thresholds which help predict potential bleaching events (Fitt et al. 2001). Corals that survive a mass bleaching seem to have increased resilience to subsequent thermal stress. Interestingly, the Arabian Gulf’s Acropora species show a remarkable capacity to withstand these extreme temperatures, possibly due to increased symbiont densities. Several other unique adaptations have also been identified, highlighting the region’s unique capacity to cope with extreme conditions.

2.4 Salinity

Salinity adaptation is just as crucial as thermal tolerance. In the Arabian Gulf, salinity levels can soar as high as 60–70 psu (John et al. 1990), almost double the salinity found in the Caribbean Sea. These extreme saline conditions, paired with thermal stress, play a significant role in coral distribution and survival in the region. Corals here might exhibit genetic plasticity, acting as both osmoregulators and osmoconformers, depending on the severity of the conditions (van der Merwe et al. 2014).

2.5 Coral Diseases

Since the 1970s, coral diseases have become a growing concern, especially in places like the Caribbean. The Gulf, however, reports fewer incidences, potentially due to its extreme conditions (Green and Bruckner 2000). Only four diseases are recorded in the Gulf, with black band, white band, and the Arabian yellow band disease being the most prominent (Bruckner and Riegl 2015). These diseases, especially in the Gulf, seem to be influenced by environmental factors rather than solely temperature. The link between coral disease prevalence and climate change highlights the evolutionary adaptations organisms undergo to survive.

2.6 Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)

The Gulf’s health is influenced by several factors, including nutrient levels. Notably, despite corals typically flourishing in oligotrophic (low nutrient) conditions, the Gulf is hypereutrophic. Various sources contribute nutrients to the Gulf, including sewage and industrial outfalls, agriculture and husbandry waste, air and oil pollution, and shipping discharges (Al-Yamani et al. 2000; Gilbert 2007). Consequently, the waters frequently experience seasonal algal blooms. While some algae, such as Myrionecta rubra, are non-harmful (n-HABs), others like Karenia brevis and Cochlodinium polykrikoides are considered harmful (HABs) (Manche 2014). These HABs present significant challenges, including water discoloration affecting tourism, clogging desalination plant filters leading to revenue loss, and harming fisheries due to gill clogging and toxins.

Commonly referred to as red tides, HABs are defined when cell counts surpass 1 million per liter of seawater. Astonishingly, the Gulf has seen counts as high as 27 million cells/l (Al-Omar 2002). These blooms predominantly occur during summer when light is abundant, adding yet another layer of stress to the Gulf’s corals. Significant HAB occurrences have been documented in regions like Oman, Kuwait, and the UAE, with notable fish kills in Oman and Kuwait during the years 2001, 2002, 2008, and 2009 (Al-Yamani et al. 2012). The most extensive HAB event, occurring in 2009, impacted areas including the UAE, Diba, Fujairah, and Qeshm Island.

3 Human Impacts on Coral Reefs

Coral reefs in the Arabian seas face rapid degradation from various human-induced and natural causes. Major contributors include eutrophication, sedimentation from activities like dredging and mining, habitat destruction from coastal development, overfishing, coral diseases, predation, and coral bleaching due to rising seawater temperatures (Bento et al. 2015). Additionally, pollution from oil production, natural gas extraction, and desalination plants pose severe threats, especially in the Arabian Gulf, although massive new gigaprojects developments along the Saudi Red Sea coast pose new problems for Red Sea reefs.

3.1 Coastal Development

Since the oil boom of the 1970s, the Arabian Gulf nations have experienced dramatic economic growth, supporting a population surge of over 300% in the past 40 years (van Lavieren et al. 2011). Resulting extensive urbanization has transformed over 40% of the Arabian Gulf’s coastline by the 1990s (Al-Ghadban and Price 2002), with even larger estimates for 2023 (Figure 1). Massive projects like the Palm Jumeirah have further affected nearshore coral reefs, with some areas reporting up to 90% loss in live coral cover (Burt et al. 2014).

Figure 1. Satellite imagery of Dubai in 1984 (above) and 2023 (below), illustrating the extent of coastal development. Imagery was downloaded from Google Earth Pro.

Along the Saudi coast of the central and northern Red Sea, enormous gigaprojects like the Red Sea Project and NEOM cover areas the size of Switzerland and Belgium, respectively, and new coastal cities like Oxagon (Figure 2) and resorts threaten coastal reefs with habitat destruction and pollution. However, built structures like breakwaters and jetties offer new substrates for coral recruitment in some areas (Burt et al. 2009a, b).

Figure 2. Artist rendering of NEOM’s proposed Oxagon ‘floating city’ on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia.

3.2 Hydrocarbon and Wastewater Pollution

Housing the world’s largest oil and gas reserves, the Gulf region accounts for approximately 30% of global oil and gas supply. But activities related to the oil industry, such as extraction and transportation, have resulted in significant contamination (Madany et al. 1998). The 1991 Gulf War oil spill, one of the largest, covered extensive parts of the Arabian Gulf coast (Price 1998). Interestingly, despite chronic pollution, the reefs have demonstrated resilience, partly due to naturally high hydrocarbon levels and bacterial assemblages capable of mineralizing oils (Al-Saleh et al. 2009). Additionally, effluents from increased industrial and agricultural activities release pollutants into the Gulf waters, though wastewater treatment standards are generally high (Sheppard et al. 2010).

3.3 Desalination

Desalination, while a solution to water scarcity in the Arabian Peninsula, introduces severe environmental challenges. With the region producing 5 billion m³/year of freshwater via desalination, the resultant effluent is hypersaline and warmer, threatening the coral reefs, which are already near their temperature and salinity limits (Dahwoud and Mullah 2012; Sale et al. 2011). The enormous gigaprojects underway along the Saudi Red Sea coast call for several million people to eventually inhabit new coastal cities, putting further stress on coral reefs.

3.4 Reef Fisheries

Historically significant, fisheries in the Arabian seas have been impacted by industrial development since the 1970s (Khan et al. 2002). Overfishing and habitat degradation have severely reduced fish and shrimp populations, prompting new management measures, particularly with regard to shrimp trawling. While some fishing methods like trawling are being curtailed, others, like spearfishing, are illegal in certain areas like Saudi Arabia. “Ghost fishing” from lost and discarded gears is another concern (Tawfik 2000).

3.5 Tourism

The Red Sea, rich in marine habitats, draws significant tourism, which brings both economic benefits and environmental pressures. Annually, activities like diving in Eilat cause significant damage to coral reefs. The cost of destroying coral reefs can range from USD 137,000 to USD 1,200,000 over 25 years based on fisheries, tourism, and shoreline protection values (Cesar 2003; Hilmi et al. 2012). Tourism-driven coral reef degradation in the Red Sea is estimated to have cost around USD 12 billion (Cesar 2003). In the UAE and Saudi Arabia, a drive to transform the economy from fossil-fuel-based to a more diversified economy is underway, and a large part of that transformation relies on luxury tourism. Although projects such as NEOM and the Red Sea Project have pledged to create sustainable eco-tourism opportunities, the sheer scale of these gigaprojects ensures that some damage to Red Sea reefs will be inevitable.

4 Management Options for Coral Reefs in the Arabian Seas

Several marine conservation initiatives have been created to protect the coral reefs of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. Among the most significant of these is the Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), headquartered in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. PERSGA, which encompasses all Red Sea nations except Eritrea, lists six priority actions for marine conservation, especially of coral reefs: integrated coastal zone management, education and awareness, marine protected areas (MPAs), sustainable reef fisheries, mitigation of shipping impacts and marine pollution, and research and monitoring (PERSGA 2018). Meanwhile, in the Arabian Gulf, the Kuwait Regional Convention on Cooperation for Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (ROPME) focuses on pollution stemming from coastal activities and oil and gas sectors. Notably, PERSGA gives coral reefs a prominent role, unlike ROPME. PERSGA also emphasizes capacity-building initiatives such as the economic valuation of marine resources and the significance of Environmental Impact Assessments (PERSGA 2018).

4.1 Marine Protected Areas

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are vital for coral reef conservation in the Arabian Seas. They are zones earmarked for conservation, permitting non-extractive tourism activities and, occasionally, limited subsistence fishing. The size of MPAs in the region ranges from about 1 km² for the Daymaniyat Islands in Oman to 362,500 km² for the Socotra Islands in Yemen (Tupper et al. 2021). When implemented correctly, MPAs can result in rapid biomass growth of key reef species (Tupper 2002). However, their effectiveness concerning coral protection is debatable, as many threats such as global warming, marine pollution, and others extend beyond MPA boundaries (Jamieson et al. 2002). While every nation bordering the Red Sea has proposed or established MPAs, only Saudi Arabia and Oman have done so in the Arabian Gulf. MPAs in the Red Sea, especially in Egypt, have shown partial success in conserving reefs and managing tourism impacts. More in-depth studies of MPA management effectiveness (e.g. Garces et al. 2013; Tupper et al. 2015) are needed.

4.2 Reef Fisheries Management

Fisheries management in the Red Gulf and Arabian Gulf is still in its infancy. Currently, there are no holistic regional fisheries management plans in place (Grandcourt 2012). Management suffers due to the absence of vital data on fish stock, catch efforts, and socio-economic valuations. Existing measures primarily focus on regulating fishing methods and not on broader objectives like size limits or quotas (Grandcourt et al. 2011). The rise in illegal fishing, fueled by weak surveillance and enforcement, coupled with rapid population growth and minimal alternative livelihoods, has led to extensive fishery resource exploitation. Such issues are exacerbated by activities like coastal development and dredging, which destroy fish habitats (Sheppard et al. 2010). For the sustainable management of reef fisheries in the region, a data-driven, ecosystem-centric approach is vital (Sale et al. 2011). In scenarios where sufficient data isn’t available, there is a need for data-limited assessment strategies to ensure effective reef fisheries management (Honey et al. 2010).

4.3 Remote Sensing and GIS for Coral Reef Management

Coral communities in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, although existing in distinct environmental settings, share common stressors that threaten their vitality (Ben-Romdhane et al. 2016). To ensure their preservation, it is paramount that sustainable management practices be adopted, leveraging the recent technological advancements in remote sensing (Owfi et al. 2014). These advancements span a range of technologies, from satellite imagery to drone systems, offering invaluable insights into coral health and distribution (Awak et al. 2016; Goodman et al. 2013). Remote sensing tools, recognized for their cost-effectiveness, precision, and ability to access challenging regions, have been instrumental in delineating reef boundaries, mapping benthic coverage, and other vital monitoring tasks (Hedley et al. 2016; Burt et al. 2015). Global entities like NOAA’s Coral Reef Watch have harnessed these technologies for years, emphasizing their significance in predicting coral bleaching events and other environmental disturbances (Hedley et al. 2016; Skirving et al. 2018). Specific studies in places like the USA, Colombia, Mexico, and the UAE further underscore the utility of remote sensing in understanding coral ecosystems (Tupper et al. 2021).

With the Arabian Seas reefs facing temperature-related threats, high-resolution satellite imagery aids in early detection and proactive management strategies (Monroe et al. 2018). Advanced satellites such as the Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 have been integrated into coral monitoring practices, offering rich, accessible data for researchers (ESA 2017; Duan et al. 2016). Drones are also gaining prominence in coral research due to their flexibility and high-resolution capabilities (Ramsewak et al. 2012). As the future of Arabian Seas coral communities is threatened by both human and natural factors, integrating advanced remote sensing tools into management strategies is essential. The selection of these tools will depend on the goals, available resources, and local conditions.

5 Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, coral reefs in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf exist in and are resilient to a harsh environment with extremes of temperature and salinity. These coral assemblages and their associated biota and fisheries are under threat from a wide variety of impacts, including global climate change and associated ocean warming, heavy tourism pressure, sedimentation, and physical habitat destruction from intense, widespread coastal development, overfishing, industrial pollution, and shipping. Coral reef management is primarily accomplished through the implementation of MPAs, with unknown success due to the lack of MPA management effectiveness assessments. Reef fisheries management in the region is poorly developed and needs to move toward a precautionary, ecosystem-based management approach. There has been increasing interest in coral reef research in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, primarily to understand the resilience of corals to global environmental change. Recent advances in GIS and remote sensing provide useful tools for managing marine ecosystems.

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